Authors and acknowledgements
Executive Summary
1 Why assess pressures and combined effects in Europe's seas?
2 Human activities at sea and the use of natural capital
2.1 The natural capital held in Europe's seas
2.2 The blue economy can only be sustainable when Europe's seas are clean, healthy and productive
2.3 The use of the natural capital held in Europe's seas
3 Pressures and their effects
3.1 Non-indigenous species introduction
3.2 Commercial exploitation of fish and shellfish stocks
3.3 Nutrient enrichment
3.4 Damage to seabed habitats
3.5 Changes in hydrological conditions
3.6 Contaminants
3.7 Marine litter
3.8 Underwater noise and other forms of energy input
3.9 Microbial pathogens
3.10 Species disturbance due to human presence
3.11 Pressures from climate change
4 Synthesis of activities, pressures and their combines effects in Europe's seas
4.1 Europe's assessment of marine pressures
4.2 Combined effects from multiple pressures
4.3 Europe's pressures in the global context
4.4 Critical ecosystems under pressure
5 Sustainable use of Europe's seas – towards clean, healthy and productive seas
5.1 What is at stake from the degradation and depletion of marine ecosystem capital?
5.2 The future contribution of the blue economy to the sustainable use of Europe's seas?
5.3 Challenges to be tackled
5.4 Managing national and local pressures
5.5 Expanding to the deep
5.6 Europe's pursuit for less impacted seas
6 Knowledge
7 Supporting material
8 References